2 The academic register

The skill of writing is required for various purposes. However, academic writing skill is of utmost importance as it enables the students to communicate their ideas well in an organized and structured manner.

Students are required to write various types of assignments during their academic span. Each type of assignment has its own set of specifications and pattern. The structure and style of each assignment type varies from the other depending upon the subject field and the requirement of the course instructor.

Common types of academic writing

The table below represents the most common types of written work produced by students.

Match the terms on the left to the definitions on the right

Table 2.1 – The most common types of written work produced by students

Style

One of the major difference between academic texts and more writer oriented texts is style: academic texts are formal. Formality is typically associated with vocabulary choice and contracted forms, but there are several other aspects that need to be considered. The following four tables present a contrastive summary (based on Tanko, 2005 b., p.66) of these aspects.

Table 2.2 – Differences between formal academic and informal styles in terms of aims

Formal Academic Style	Informal Style
- create a distance between writer and audience; - give objective tone to writing; - emphasis on the communicated message; - clear and precise communication.	- emphasise proximity between writer and audience; - give subjective tone to writing; - emphasis on the writer and teacher.

Table 2.3 – Differences between formal academic and informal styles in terms of vocabulary

Formal Academic Style

Informal Style

- neutral / formal alternative of lexical items; - precision is a key feature in selecting lexical items to avoid ambiguity (e.g., avoidance of approximations like quite a large part); - efficient use of words; - preference of single verbs (e.g., reach instead of go up to); - no run-on expressions «and so forth, etc»; - technical terms (field specific lexic); - no shortened word forms; - no slang; - no hesitation fillers.

- colloquial vocabulary and expressions; - brevity (conciseness in expression) is not a requirement; - prefence of phrasal verb or prepositional verb (e.g., carry out instead of conduct, look into instead of investigate); - general, everyday vocabulary; - shortened word forms, slang allowed; - hesitation fillers allowed.

Table 2.4 – Differences between formal academic and informal styles in terms of tone

Formal Academic Style

Informal Style

Impersonal (objective) tone realized with the use of: - passive structures when the agent is not known or important or when the focus is on the object or recipient of the action; - it sentences (It is often argued…); - last names; - impersonal pronouns; - impersonal phrases (it is hoped, is to be seen, it has been found); - avoidance of unclear editorial we to refer to a single author; - formal linking words and phrases ( moreover, nevertheless, in addition to…, contrary to …); - cautious language (hedges such as appears to, could, is likely to are used).

Personal (subjective) tone realized with the use of: - active structures; - direct reference to/involvement of the reader; (e.g., Here`s some news for you..., Can you believe it?); - first names; - attitude words and phrases (anyway, luckily, right, let`s).

Table 2.5 – Differences between formal academic and informal styles in terms of grammar

Formal Academic Style

Informal Style

- prepositions and relative pronouns used together (e.g., I received a rejection from an employer for a job for which I knew I was qualified.); - relative pronouns included (e.g., The woman whom he admired…); - co-ordinating linking words (e.g., and, or,but) used between clauses in a sentence; - imperative structures avoided (e.g., consider the case of); - use of formal negative forms (e.g., not any- no, not much – little, not many – few); - avoidance of direct questions; - even use of a variety of punctuation options (e.g., colon, semicolon) to support meaning; - variety of sentence structure and length.

- separated prepositions and relative pronouns (e.g., I didn`t get the job/which/I applied for.); - relative pronouns left out ( e.g., The woman she admired…); - co-ordinating linking words (e.g., and, or, but) used at the beginning of sentences; - little variety in punctuation options.

Task. Compare the following two paragraphs: although the ideas expressed in the paragraphs are the same, one presents them in a much more formal, academic way.

Example 1

Example 2

Capital is a complex notion. There are many definitions of the word itself, and capital as applied in accounting can be viewed conceptually from a number of standpoints; that is, there is legal capital, financial capital and physical capital. The application of financial and physical concepts of capital is not straightforward as there are various permutations of these concepts applied in the business environment…..

Capital is a difficult thing to understand. We can explain it in different ways, and in accounting we can look at it from different angles. Accountants talk about legal capital, financial capital and physical capital. How we apply financial and physical concepts of capital isn't easy because people in business use it differently. . .

Checklist of language to avoid in academic writing

1. Phrasal or prepositional verbs: Research expenditures have gone up to $ 350 million. → have increased
2. Contractions: The experiment won’t be over until the end of the year. → will not
3. Informal negative forms: not…any → no, not…much → little, not…many → few. This approach does not promise many innovations. → few
4. Adverbs in the initial or final positions: The result can be seen easily. → can be easily seen
5. Direct questions: What should we do to improve the ecological situation? → We need to consider what we should do to improve the ecological situation.
6. «Run-on» expressions («and so forth», «etc»): These semiconductors can be used in robots, CD-players, etc.→ These semiconductors can be used in robots, CD-players, and other electronic devices.
7. Colloquial abbreviations and shortened words: TV→ television, cause → because, fridge→ refrigerator.
8. Meaningless, vague, simplistic and/or weak words: «very», «really», «pretty much», «sort of», «kind of», «it is interesting to note», «you know», «well», «good», «bad», «thing».
9. Addressing the reader directly, especially in more formal papers: «as you know», «as you can see».
10. Personal pronouns (I, we), especially in more formal papers.
11. Conversational vocabulary (euphemisms, jargon, slang, clichés).

Task. Which of the words in italics would be more suitable for an academic paper?

1. The government has made good/considerable progress in solving environmental problems.
2. We got/obtained encouraging results.
3. The results of a lot of / numerous different projects have been pretty good/encouraging.
4. A loss of jobs is one of the things that will happen/consequences if the process is automated.

Task. Choose a verb from the list that reduces the informality of each sentence. Note that you may need to add tense to the verb from the list:

1. a) assist;
2. b) raise;
3. c) reduce;
4. d) establish;
5. e) create;
6. f) increase;
7. g) investigate;
8. h) determine;
9. i) eliminate;
10. j) fluctuate;

1. Expert Systems can help out the user in the diagnosis of problems.
2. This program was set up to improve access to medical care.
3. Research expenditures have gone up to nearly $3,500 million.
4. Researchers have found out that this drug has serious side effects.
5. Building a nuclear power plant will not get rid of the energy problem completely.
6. Researchers have been looking into this problem for 15 years now.
7. This issue was brought up during the investigation.
8. The emission levels have been going up and down.

Task. Rewrite the following sentences to raise them to academic register. Some sentences have more than one non-academic language problem. 

1. In my free time, I enjoy playing pool, reading, listening to music, and so on.
2. When you apply for a job, you may want to sue the services of the Career Placement Center on your campus.
3. There hasn’t been any snow this year.
4. Although they’ve lived here for 10 years, my parents haven’t had a chance to learn English well.
5. In the past 5 years, somebody has done a lot of studies on this topic.
6. First, heat the solution to the boiling point. Then, keep on boiling it for at least 2 minutes.
7. Analyzing the data has been rough on me.
8. If you receive less than 550 on the TOEFL examination, you may not be able to enter some US universities.
9. The occupants have got to spend some time sorting through the junk in this office.
10. How were the data collected?

Task. Circle the topic of the sentence and underline the main idea about the topic.

1. Parachuting is an extreme sport.
2. My parents have very different personalities.
3. Spain is one of the most attractive countries for tourism.
4. Tibet is a land full of adventure.
5. A good place to visit in my home city is an ethnographic museum.
6. Digital skills makes you more competitive in a labour market.
7. Tertiary education should be free for all students.
8. Watching television is a good way of relaxing.
9. Research indicates that physical training can help to improve memory.
10. Stress is arguably one of the most serious modern diseases.
11. Underdeveloped countries need economic support.

Task. Write a topic sentence for five of these topics:

- the season I enjoy most of all;

- my favorite way to relax;

- doing sports;

- travelling abroad;

- drugs in sports;

- reasons for adopting children;

- playing a musical instrument;

- my most memorable trip;

- the future of computers;

- fast food;

- climate change.

Task. Write a topic sentence for each of the following paragraphs.

1. Green curry is the hottest Thai curry. People who like very spicy food will enjoy green curry. Red curry is medium hot. It is flavorful, but it doesn't burn your mouth. Yellow curry is the mildest of all. It is usually the choice of people who eat Thai food for the first time. In short, you have three delicious choices when you order Thai curry.
2. First, good teachers know their subject very well. That is, a math teacher has advanced education in mathematics, and an English teacher is an expert in English grammar. Second, good teachers must be good communicators. Being a good communicator means presenting information in ways that students can understand. Third, good teachers are enthusiastic. That is, they are so interested in their subject that they make it fun to learn. To summarize, good teachers have expert knowledge, good communication skills, and contagious enthusiasm.
3. Stories show life as it might be, should be, should not be, never could be. Basic social values, skills, wisdoms and all show up here but so do all sorts of other things on many different levels. It is no accident that the founders of religions have been storytellers. Christ had his parables, Mohammed had his teaching of tales and the Buddha had his Jataka Tales. It’s also entirely natural that the many of the first great books that form the cornerstones of literary cultures across the world have been books of stories brought together from oral tradition – The Panchatantra from India which became Kalila & Dimna in the Arab world, The Alif Layla wa Layla (Arabian Nights), The Decameron, The Fables of Aesop, Homer’s Odyssey and Iliad to name but a few.

Task. Read the paragraph below. What topic is discussed? Underline the topic statement. What supporting points are made?

Since the invention of the internal combustion engine, cities have been shaped by the car and by their inhabitants` reliance on it. The assumption that everybody will own their own car and lead a highly mobile existence is reflected in the low-density layout of modern cities. Such cities were also planned with freeway systems, enabling people to drive great distances every day. However, this attitude takes no account of the elderly, the young, the poor and non-drivers.

Task. A paragraph may also contain a qualifying statement which introduces a different perspectives, and this may also be followed by supporting points. Qualifying statements are often introduced by concession links such as but, despite or however. Which is the qualifying statement in the paragraph above?

Task. Read the following sentences and complete the table below.

1. Much rubbish was simply dumped in a convenient place.
2. There is a shortage of space for depositing waste.
3. In the past, waste disposal was cheap and easy.
4. Increased transport costs make waste disposal expensive.
5. Today there are numerous problems with waste disposal.

Topic statement
Supporting point (s)
Qualifying statement (s)
Supporting point (s)

Task. Supply a more academic word or phrase for the one in italics.

1. The reaction of the officials was sort of negative.
2. The economic outlook is mighty nice.
3. The future of Federal funding is up in the air.
4. America’s major automakers are planning to get together on the research needed for more fuel efficient cars.
5. The implementation of computer-integrated-manufacturing (CIM) has brought about serious problems.
6. The process should be done over until the desired results are achieved.
7. Plans are being made to come up with a database containing detailed environmental information for the region.
8. Subtle changes in the earth’s crust were picked up by these new devices.
9. Proposals to construct new nuclear reactors have met with great resistance from environmentalists.

Task. Study paragraphs 1, 2, 3 and select the correct comment about the writing style:

- formal, straightforward, clearly written, correct academic style;

- informal, like spoken (colloquial) language, incorrect academic style;

- too formal, uses too many words, incorrect academic style.

1. I think that essay writing is an important skill for all of us students. Don’t you see how many marks are given for this? Lots of students agree that they are marooned if they can’t write a decent essay. In my opinion (as a struggling student), we should have lessons in essay writing from day one!!!
2. It is in fact correct to say that academic essay writing is of utmost importance in the attainment of a university degree. A high proportion of marks are allocated to the compilation of essay assignments as part of a university course to the point where it could be the causation of terminating a degree program because of failure. There is somewhat of an obligation for universities in the provision of services to the student population to educate their students in the intricacies of essay writing early in their undergraduate first year.
3. Essay writing is an important skill for tertiary students. Academic essays can attract a considerable proportion of assessment marks in most degree programs. Therefore, students may require a firm grounding in academic essay writing skills at the start of their first year to assist them to succeed in their university studies.

Task. Write the following sentences in plain English.

1. He was so surprised that he couldn’t verbalise anything.
2. She utilised the telephone continuously.
3. The closing of the factory impacted negatively on the whole town.
4. While waiting in the line at the bookstore, I interacted with a couple of sophomores.
5. Before making her decision, the coach invited input from all members of the team.
6. The defective toys led to a barrage of negative input from dissatisfied customers.
7. If enrolment is successful in terms of numbers, then we shall be able to implement a reduction in fees.
8. The committee has the recruitment situation under active consideration at the present moment.