The Structure of a Paragraph
A paragraph is a group of sentences about a single topic. Together, the sentences of the paragraph explain the writer’s main idea about the topic. In academic writing, a paragraph is often between five and seven sentences long, but it can be longer or shorter, depending on the topic.
Task. Read the following paragraphs and answer the questions.
3.What ideas help explain the main idea?
The Grand Canyon
The Grand Canyon national park can be found in the United States of America. The Grand Canyon National Park is only the 15th oldest national park in the world and can be found in Arizona. It was officially named a world heritage site in 1979 by UNESCO and this is a vast national park that is one of the best loved parks also. The Park features the ever popular and much visited the Grand Canyon, which is in fact the centrepiece for the park. The Grand Canyon National Park covers a vast area of 1902 square meters. This is exceptionally large and the biggest attraction of the national park is in fact the Grand Canyon. This is a popular choice for many to visit especially with the helicopter trips that can be taken to view the actual Grand Canyon which is often taken.
Studying Abroad
Studying abroad has two main benefits. Firstly, people who study abroad can get a better job when they return to their home country. This is because their qualifications and experience mean that they tend to get jobs that are higher paid, and they can also gain promotion quickly. Another advantage of studying abroad is the independence students can gain. For example, students have to cope with the challenges of living alone and meeting new people from different cultures. As a consequence, they will become more confident in their life and in their relationships with others. All in all, it is clear that studying abroad is a beneficial experience.
Traffic in Vietnam
Nowadays, traffic is one of the most important problems in big cities in Vietnam because it brings many harm. Firstly, too many vehicles cause traffic jams in cities during rush hour. Secondly, there are many young people riding their bikes dangerously with high speech. Finally, some people intentionally violate traffic laws such as passing a red light, carrying bulky, etc, which can lead to traffic accidents. Moreover drinking alcohol also leads to tragic deaths and don not wear helmet as well. In conclusion, in my opinion, traffic in big cities is dangerous. I hope the traffic in Vietnam will be improved in the future.
The Three Parts to Good Paragraph Writing
The structure for a paragraph includes the following parts:
- topic sentence;
- supporting sentences;
- concluding sentence.
The topic sentence is a general but focused statement that expresses the main subject of the paragraph. The topic sentence states what the paragraph will be about. It gives the topic of the paragraph, and it also restricts the topic to one or two main ideas which can be explained fully in the space of one paragraph. The controlling idea is the specific area that the topic is limited to:
Topic controlling idea
Studying abroad has two main benefits
A well-built expository paragraph always has a topic sentence. It tells the reader what the paragraph is about. In academic essays, the topic sentence is usually the sentence that relates to one of the main supporting ideas of an essay. A good topic sentence is balanced and focused: not too general and not too specific. It focuses on the subject of the paragraph. For example, when you order a salad in a restaurant, you want to know a little more about what kind of salad it is. Potato? Mixed green? Fruit? But you do not necessarily have to know all the ingredients. In a paragraph, the topic sentence tells you what kind of “salad” to expect. Here’s an example of a balanced, focused topic sentence.
My roommate shows his consideration for others in everything he does.
This topic sentence tells you the subject of the paragraph – my considerate roommate – and suggests you will learn what the roommate does to show his consideration. It offers an idea that prompts a reader to ask questions: How does the roommate show consideration? What are some examples of his consideration?
The topic sentence may – and often is – the first sentence. But not necessarily. For example, a transition sentence – one that makes a transition between the idea of the preceding paragraph and the idea of the current paragraph – may appear before the topic sentence. Depending on the writer’s style and intent, the topic sentence could be the last sentence. It could even be in the middle of a paragraph. But the best place for the topic sentence is at the beginning of a paragraph.
Supporting sentences explain and develop the topic sentence. Specifically, they discuss the topic sentence by explaining the main ideas and discussing those more fully using reasons, examples, facts, results, statistics, or anything else that proves your ideas are true.
The answers to the how? question about the roommate are the supporting sentences. Here are some supporting sentences that provide specific evidence – in the form of examples – and «prove» that the roommate is considerate:
When I first came to school, my roommate showed me around the campus. He has never complained about lending me everything from clothes to soap. When driving, he stops for pedestrians and allows other drivers to pass if they are in a hurry. Every Saturday, he writes a long letter to his grandmother, because he knows it makes her feel good to hear from him.
Put the topic sentence and supporting sentences, and you have a well-built body paragraph. It could go at the beginning, with a slight change in pronouns:
My roommate shows his consideration for others in everything he does. When I first came to school, he showed me around the campus. He has never complained about lending me everything from clothes to soap. When driving, he stops for pedestrians and allows other drivers to pass if they are in a hurry. Every Saturday, he writes a long letter to his grandmother, because he knows it makes her feel good to hear from him.
Or, with a few changes, the topic sentence could go at the end:
When I first came to school, my roommate showed me around the campus. He has never complained about lending me everything from clothes to soap. When driving, he stops for pedestrians and allows other drivers to pass if they are in a hurry. Every Saturday, he writes a long letter to his grandmother, because he knows it makes her feel good to hear from him. Whenever he interacts with other people, my roommate shows his consideration for others.
A concluding sentence can be used to signal the end of the paragraph. It tells the reader the important points to remember. It is often a paraphrase of the topic sentence.
All in all, it is clear that studying abroad is a beneficial experience.
Concluding sentences are optional and paragraphs often do not have them. Still, it is a good way to add coherence to your paragraph.
The following example, which uses the same topic sentence and supporting sentences as before, shows how a concluding sentence can finish a paragraph. Note how the concluding sentence wraps up the whole idea of the paragraph.
My roommate shows his consideration for others in everything he does. When I first came to school, he showed me around the campus. He has never complained about lending me everything from clothes to soap. When driving, he stops for pedestrians and allows other drivers to pass if they are in a hurry. Every Saturday, he writes a long letter to his grandmother, because he knows it makes her feel good to hear from him. That’s the kind of roommate and grandson that everyone would like to have.
In academic English writing, a concluding sentence for a paragraph wraps up the idea of that paragraph by making a connection between the idea of the paragraph and the thesis for the whole essay. It restates the idea of the paragraph, but in a new or different way. In fact, from reading a good concluding sentence, you should be able to state the thesis of an essay.
Task. Develop an introduction paragraph and a closing paragraph to accompany the following body paragraphs.
Looking Ahead
Introduction paragraph is missing!
I want an education that will prepare me not only to get a well-paying and worthwhile career but that will also help me live a satisfying life outside my work. To prepare myself to get a good job, I am majoring in X-ray technology. Careers in radiology (as the field is also called) pay quite well. I would be able to support myself and my family comfortably; some day, perhaps, I would be able to buy a house in a safe neighborhood with good schools. But I also want what is called a liberal education. For example, I want to take courses in literature and the arts to enrich my leisure time. I want to take courses in psychology and sociology to understand myself and my fellow citizens. I want courses in history to see where we humans have come from and where we are headed. So one of my goals in life is to obtain this type of education
Protecting the environment is also important to me as I pursue my goals. Like everyone else, I have a duty to leave our Earth in at least as good a condition as I found it. I believe we should all be like those Native Americans whose beliefs required them to consider how their actions would affect the seventh generation of those who followed. One small contribution I can make is to limit the size of my family so as not to contribute to an exploding population growth that threatens the environment and the quality of life for everyone. I can also vote for those political candidates who can look further into the future than the next election.
Closing paragraph is missing!
Paragraphs – Long and Short
The paragraphs of your essay lead the reader step by step through your ideas. Each paragraph should make one point, and every sentence in it should relate to that one point. Usually the paragraph begins by stating the main idea and then goes on to explain it and make it specific.
Paragraphs should be as long as they need to be to make one point. On occasion, one or two strong sentences can be enough. At other times you need nine or ten sentences to explain your idea. However, you want to avoid writing an essay that consists of either one long paragraph of a series of very short ones. Paragraphs give readers a visual landing, a place to pause; so use your eye and vary the lengths of your paragraphs.
Indent the first line of the paragraph
In college papers, indent the first line of each paragraph half an inch. In business letters or reports, where you single-space between lines, omit the indentation and double-space between the paragraphs to divide them.
Topic Sentence and support: The classic paragraph pattern
In many college essays and reports, each middle paragraph should demonstrate one point. The most common format for these paragraphs is to state the point and then give the evidence that makes if clear.
Here is the pattern:
Topic Sentence
This sentence states the main idea of the whole paragraph. Usually it comes first, or after a brief transition from the previous paragraph. However, a paragraph also can build up to a concluding topic sentence if evidence is presented first.
Support
You can back up your topic sentence by using whatever will make it clear to the reader: explanations of terminology, facts, examples, or reasoning that proves your point. With all of these, make clear how your evidence relates to your topic sentence.
A Wrap-up Sentence
A final sentence pulls together the whole paragraph. (This sentence should not, however, introduce the topic of the next paragraph. Changing topics at the end of a paragraph seems disorganized. Instead, make the transition at the beginning of the new paragraph. See page 78 on transitions between paragraphs).
Break up long paragraphs
A paragraph that is more than ten sentences usually should be divided. Find a natural point for division, such as:
- a new subject or idea;
- a turning point in a story;
- the start of an example;
- a change of location or time.
Expand short paragraphs
Too many short paragraphs cam make your thought seem fragmented. If you have a string of paragraphs that consist of one or two sentences, you may need to combine, develop, or omit some of your paragraphs.
Combine:
- join two paragraphs on the same point;
- include examples in the same paragraph as the point they illustrate;
- regroup your major ideas and make a new paragraph plan.
Develop:
- give examples or reasons to support your point;
- cite facts, statistics, or evidence to support your point;
- relate an incident or event that supports your point;
- explain any important general terms;
- quote authorities to back up what you say.
Omit
If you have a short paragraph that cannot be expanded or combined with another, chances are that paragraph should be dropped. Sometimes you have to decide whether you really want to explain a particular point or whether it’s not important to your paper.
Check for continuity
Within a paragraph, make sure that your sentences follow a logical sequence. Each one should build on the previous one and lead to the next. Link your paragraphs together with transitions – taking words or ideas from one paragraph and using them at the beginning of the next one.
A tip
If you keep having trouble with your paragraphs, you can rely on this basic paragraph pattern:
- a main point stated in one sentence;
- an explanation of any general words in your main point;
- examples or details that support your point with the reason each example supports your point;
- a sentence to sum up.
Paragraph Analysis Practice
Task. Read the following paragraph, which is in a more formal, academic register.
For international students interested in interacting with American students, study groups and campus organizations present two good opportunities. At the beginning of a semester, international students can arrange to study with a group of students in one or more of their classes. Students can simply ask the instructor to announce a group study opportunity to the class. After that point, the interested students can meet to decide on the day, time, and place of their regular meetings. At the meetings, students, both international and American, can review vocabulary, discuss ideas and assignments, and prepare for exams. In addition, international students can join some campus organizations that attract American students. Clubs are often formed that are related to various major fields and subject areas; these clubs offer an opportunity to learn more about a subject in an environment of English-speaking Americans. A benefit of interacting with American in these two ways is that friendships are sometimes formed, even though the primary goal may be just to participate in the language.
Task. Outline the paragraph and analyze how the topic sentence, supporting sentences, and the concluding sentence work together. Don’t write complete sentences; just make notes that indicate which sentence(s) you are referring to.
Topic sentence:
Supporting sentence – idea 1:
Example:
Example:
Supporting sentence – idea 2:
Example:
Example:
Closing sentence:
Task. Read the following topic sentences. Then, write several specific statements that could be used to support the topic sentence. Finally, write a wrap-up or closing sentence for the paragraph.
Specific supporting statements:
(1)
(2)
(3)
Wrap-up sentence:
Specific supporting statements:
(1)
(2)
(3)
Wrap-up sentence:
Specific supporting statements:
(1)
(2)
(3)
Wrap-up sentence:
Task. Here are several collections of supporting sentences for a paragraph on the identified subject. Write a balanced topic sentence – not too general and not too specific – topic sentence for each set of supporting sentences.
In Canada, French-speaking Canadians have been working toward greater recognition of their language and political rights. In Britain, much controversy has been caused by the fight for greater self-determination for Scotland and Wales. In Spain, Basque terrorists have been fighting to preserve their separate language and separate national identity. In France, people in such areas as Corsica and Alsace are protesting against the domination of national affairs by the central government in Paris.
If you stop smoking, you may avoid later development of lung cancer or heart disease. If you cut down on drinking, you lower the risk of liver disease. A diet low in fat and calories reduces the risk of heart attacks and diabetes.
When two gorillas quarrel, they may stare at each other until one of them gives in and shifts his gaze away. Chimpanzees make rough tools from twigs in order to get at food. They greet each other with kisses and cuddles. Several apes have been taught to use dozens of signs from the sign language of the deaf.
In simple terms of physical appearance, one hazard of smoking is that it can cause permanent stains on teeth. Other consequences, especially those related to health, are much more severe. For example, smoking contributes to heart disease. The most significant health risk for most smokers, however, is lung cancer.
In the past, a college education prepared people for professional degrees or for a position in a family business. In more recent years, university degrees have increasingly been perceived as the best way to prepare for a career. Most recently, people have begun to view university degrees as preparation for life itself.
Task. The topic sentence for each paragraph in the following text about Leonardo da Vinci is missing. But the sentences are listed separately. Match the correct topic sentence with its appropriate paragraph by putting the number of the sentence on the line above the paragraph.
The Genius of Leonardo da Vinci
He was the illegitimate son of a Florentine lawyer and property owner. His artistic bent obviously appeared at an early age, for when he was 15, he was apprenticed to the painter Verocchio. In 1472, da Vinci was accepted in the painters’ guild in Florence, where he remained until 1481.
And among his early drawings were many sketches of mechanical apparatus and weapons, evidence of his interest in and knowledge of things mechanical.
His artistic achievements reached their peak with the mural, «The Last Supper», completed in 1497.
In the 1490s, he began monumental treatises on painting, architecture, human anatomy, and mechanics. He set down his observations on these themes in voluminous notes and sketches, which he would later assemble in his notebooks. There remain of his notebooks a prodigious 7000 pages, all in characteristic «mirror-writing».
He then returned to Milan and entered the service of the French King Louis XII. Later, da Vinci was to work in Rome with Raphael and Michelangelo, both famous Renaissance artists in their own right, on designs for the new church of St. Peter. In 1516, da Vinci settled in France, in Cloux, near Abboise, where he died three years later.
He was no mere theorist advancing fanciful ideas. He was a practical man, who designed things that would work, because he could see how they would work.
There is no evidence that Leonardo actually built the machines and mechanical devices he sketched and described. And in many cases their practical importance (flying machines, for example) remained unrealized and unrealizable for centuries. There was neither the demand for such devices, nor was there the technology to make them real.
7.But his creative energies now were turning more and more to scientific and literary pursuits.
Task. Individually, write three paragraphs on the following topic:
What are the key problems facing the world`s cities in the 21st century, and what can be done about them?
Follow this plan:
- рaragraph 1– introduce topic; outline two key problems;
- рaragraph 2 – propose possible solutions to first problem;
- рaragraph 3 – propose possible solutions to second problem.
Task. In the following paragraphs, the topic sentence has been omitted. For each paragraph, there are three sentences, each of which could function as a topic sentence. However, only one of the sentences is appropriate. Read each paragraph; examine the supporting details and the conclusion. Then, select the number of the sentence that best expresses the main idea of the paragraph. Finally, indicate where in the paragraph you would place the topic sentence.
It is not unusual for a movie reviewer to recommend taking a handkerchief to help viewers mop up their tears, but never will you hear such advice from a record reviewer and seldom from a book reviewer. Why do movies have such powerful effects? It is not movies themselves. With rare exception, these evocative efforts occur only when movies are shown in a theater. The viewer sits in a darkened auditorium in front of a giant screen. There is nothing to interrupt the experience. The rest of the world is excluded. Movies, of course, can be shown outdoors at drive-in theaters and on television, but the experience is strongest in the darkened cocoon of a movie house.
(Adapted from The Media of mass Communication, 4th edition, by John Vivian).
Some students live in dorms and do not have their own cooking or refrigeration facilities. Others live in crowded apartments where everyone forages in the refrigerator and, too often, filches someone else’s food. Still others eat at university food services where food choices are limited. Most students have time constraints that make buying, preparing, and eating healthy food a difficult task. In addition, many lack the financial resources needed to buy many foods that their parents purchased while they live at home. What can a student do?
(Adapted from Health: The Basics, 2nd edition, by Rebecca J. Donatelle and Lorraine G. Davis).
Task. Identify the topic sentence (TS) for each paragraph; write TS on the line next to that sentence. Then, decide the order of the supporting sentences (SS); number them accordingly: SS1, SS2, SS3, and so on.
Paragraph A
____ It enables customers to do several banking transactions 24 hours a day.
____ In addition, a customer can transfer funds between accounts or get a cash advance on a credit card.
____ An automated teller machine (ATM) is a convenient miniature bank.
____ For example, a customer can use an ATM to deposit money and withdraw a limited amount of cash.
Paragraph B
____ After an attack by a great white, 462 stitches were required to sew up an Australian scuba diver.
____ With their razor-sharp teeth and strong jaws, great white sharks are very dangerous.
____ Nevertheless, one did just that near a public beach in Australia in 1985.
____ Even when they attack humans, however, great whites do to usually eat the humans.
____ It bit in half and totally devoured a young female swimmer.
____ Great whites do not usually attack humans, but when they do, they always cause serious injury and even death.
Paragraph C
____ Another important change was that people had the freedom to live and work wherever they wanted.
____ The earliest significant change was for farming families, who were no longer isolated.
____ The final major change brought by the automobile was the building of superhighways, suburbs, huge shopping centers, and many theme parks such as Disney World in Florida.
____ The automobile revolutionized the American way of life.
____ The automobile enabled them to drive to towns and cities comfortably and conveniently.
____ In fact, people could work in a busy metropolitan city and drive home to the quiet suburbs.
Paragraph D
____ In time, this melted part rises as magma.
____ The formation of a volcanic eruption is a dramatic series of events.
____ As the plate sinks, friction and the earth’s heat cause part of it to melt.
____ The magma produces heat, steam, and pressure.
____ First of all, most volcanoes are formed where two plates collide.
____ Then, one of the plates is forced under the other and sinks.
____ When the heat, steam, and pressure from the magma finally reach the surface of the Earth, a volcanic eruption occurs.
Task. Here are 3 collections of supporting sentences for a paragraph on the identified subject. Write a balanced topic sentence – not too general and not too specific – for each set of supporting sentences.
Americans relaxing at home, for example, may put on kimonos, which is a Japanese word. Americans who live in a warm climate may take an afternoon siesta on an outdoor patio without even realizing that these are Spanish words. In their gardens, English speakers may enjoy the fragrance of jasmine flowers, a word that came into English from Persian. They may even relax on a chaise lounge while sipping a drink made with vodka, words of French and Russian origin, respectively.
In European universities, students are not required to attend classes. In fact, professors in Germany generally do not know the names of the students enrolled in their courses. In the United States, however, students are required to attend all classes and may be penalized if they do not. Furthermore, in the European system, there is usually just one comprehensive examination at the end of the students’ entire four or five years of study. In the American system, on the other hand, there are usually numerous quizzes, tests, and homework assignments, and there is almost always a final examination in each course at the end of the semester.
For example, the Eskimos, living in a treeless region of snow and ice, sometimes build temporary homes out of thick blocks of ice. People who live in deserts, on the other hand, use the most available material, mud or clay, which provides good insulation from the heat. In Northern Europe, Russia, and other areas of the world where forests are plentiful, people usually construct their homes out of wood. In the islands of the South Pacific, where there is a plentiful supply of bamboo and palm, people use these tough, fibrous plants to build their homes.
Task. These sentences are mixed up in order. Number the parts in order:
- topic sentence;
- supporting sentence;
- concluding sentence.
Task. Read the text below.
Almost all food, with the exception of water and salt, provides some energy, and this is measured in calories. About half the calories we consume are used for physical activity and half for growth, breathing, digestion and other bodily processes. The reason people put on weight is simple – they consume more energy than they use up in daily activities. Any excess energy is stored as body fat for later use. Too much body fat puts a strain on the heart and can cause pain in the back and joints. Surveys show that although our energy intake has decreased by about a third over the past 40 years, we`re still getting heavier. That`s because our energy expenditure is lower than ever, we drive to the shops, use lifts and escalators, and have increasingly sedentary jobs;
1) What kind of text should be divided into paragraphs, and why?
2) How do you decide when to begin a new paragraph?
Three features of an effective paragraph
|
Features |
What they mean |
How to achieve them |
|
Unity |
A paragraph focuses on just one main idea |
State the main idea clearly in one sentence – topic sentence |
|
Coherence |
All paragraph parts are closely related |
Use transitional devices and the organizing logical patterns: chronological, spatial, general–to–specific, specific–to–general |
|
Development |
The main idea must be developed through specifics |
Use the following methods of development: illustration, narration, defining, classifying, comparing and contrast, causes and effects, problem and solution, argumentation |
Connection between Ideas
A very important consideration of academic writing and speaking is flow – moving from one statement in a text to the next one. Transition or link words and phrases are used in a text to show relationships between ideas and to pass from one part to the next. Transition words and phrases also help your audience in following your shift in ideas or thoughts; from time, location, sequence, and importance of your topics to clarifying and reinforcing your ideas.
When ideas, sentences and paragraphs fit smoothly together, the text is coherent – easily understandable. At a paragraph level, having a clearly stated topic sentence at the beginning of each new paragraph as well as using transition words or phrases linking the new paragraph to what was stated before it, creates coherence (= cohesion) in your text.
Repetition of the key terms or phrases, using linking words, synonyms and demonstratives are all ways of creating coherence in your written or oral text.
Task. Consider the following passages. What parts in passage B differ from those in passage A? Why does B have a better ‘flow’ than A?
Language focus: Transitions
Transitions are bridges in your writing that take the reader from one thought to the next and help avoid choppiness. You need transitions between paragraphs that show the movement from one idea to the next, and you also need transitions to connect sentences within a paragraph.
First Check the Order of Your Ideas
If you are having trouble with transitions, it may be that your points are out of order. Make a list of your ideas and juggle the order so that one point leads logically to the next.
Use Transition Words
Keep your transitions brief and inconspicuous. Here are some choices of transition words you can use to underscore certain points or relationships.
Adding a point: furthermore, besides, finally, in addition to
Emphasis: above all, indeed, in fact, in other words, most important
Time: then, afterward, eventually, next, immediately, meanwhile, previously, already, often, since then, now, later, usually
Space: next to, across, from, above, below, nearby, inside, beyond, between, surrounding
Cause and effect: consequently, as a result, therefore, thus
Examples: for example, for instance
Progression: first, second, third, furthermore
Contrast: but, however, in contrast, instead, nevertheless, on the other hand, though, still, unfortunately
Similarity: like, also, likewise, similarly, as, then too
Concession: although, yet, of course, after all, granted, while it is true
Conclusions: therefore, to sum up, in brief, in general, in short, for these reasons, in retrospect, in conclusion, finally
Use Repetition of Key Words.
I can never forget the year of the flood. That was the year I grew up.
Everyone agreed that Adlai Stevenson was intelligent. His intelligence, however, did not always endear him to the voters.
People who have hypoglycemia usually need to be on a special diet. They should, at the very least, avoid eating sugar.
Use synonyms – different words with the same meaning.
When you repot plants, be certain to use a high grade of potting soil. Plants need good rich dirt in order to thrive.
Even though the woman was handcuffed, she kept running around, waving her manacled hands in the air.
Use Transitional Sentences to Link Paragraphs
Usually the transition between paragraphs comes in the first sentence of the new paragraph.
Even though Hortense followed all of these useful suggestions, she still ran into an unforeseen problem.
Because of these results, the researchers decided to try a new experiment.
Notice that, in these examples, the first half, of the sentence refers to a previous paragraph; the second half points to the paragraph that is beginning.
Incorporating quotations
A good quotation demonstrates the point you are making.
Keep the Quotations Secondary to Your Own Ideas and Words
Each quotation should illustrate a definite point you want to make. Before and after the quotation, stress your point. Maintain your own writing style throughout the paper.
Don`t Use Many Quotations
Too many quotations chop up your paper and lead the reader away from your points. Most of the time, tell in your own style what you have read. Instead of quoting, you can summarize (give the main points of what you read) or paraphrase (explain a single in detail in your own words).
Quote opinions or Key Phrases – Not Facts or Events
It is important to know what to quote and what to simply tell. In a research paper, do not quote information; in a literature paper, do not quote what happened. Instead, mention these in your own words. Reserve word-for-word quotation for opinions and for key phrases you wish to discuss.
Keep Your Quotations Brief
Short quotations are the easiest and most graceful to use. Avoid using many quotations of over three or four lines. If you want to use a long quotation, omit sections that do not apply and use an ellipsis (…) to indicate the part you`ve left out. A long quotation should be immediately followed – in the same paragraph – by a discussion of the points you are making about the quotation.
Introduce Your Quotations
Direct quotations should usually be preceded by identifying tags. Always make clear who is speaking and the source of the information.
John Holt, in his essay “How Teachers Make Children Hate Reading”, says “Many children associate books and reading with mistakes”.
Incorporating the author`s name and any other pertinent information into your text will vary your quotations.
Educator John Holt offers advice for how to read: “Find something, dive into it, take the good parts, skip the bad parts, get what you can out of it, go on to something else.”
Incorporate Each Quotation into a Clear Sentence
Be certain that your quotations make sense, both in sentence structure and in content. If you use fragments of quotations, be certain that they are woven into complete sentences.
John Holt believes that reading should be «an exciting, joyous adventure».
Note that the three examples in this chapter illustrate three ways to lead into and punctuate a quotation.
Here is the resource for the quotations in this chapter.
Holt, John. «How Teachers Make Children Hate Reading».
Redbook. Nov. 1967: 50+. Rpt. in Responding
Conclusions
Don`t end your paper with preaching or clichés. Consider, out of all that you have written, what is most important. Sometimes you want a quick summation, but other times you should make several points in your conclusion.
To get a memorable last sentence, try writing five sentences. They can express the same basic idea, but they should be worded as differently as possible – one long, one short, one plain, one elegant. If you write five, you will find the one you want.
Here are several approaches to writing a conclusion:
Return to Your Introduction
Look back at the issues you raised in your introduction. Using some of the same language, say what your essay has added to your initial thoughts. The point is not to repeat your introduction but to build on it.
Summarize
Stress your main points, but avoid repeating earlier phrases word for word. Summaries can be boring, so make an effort to give yours some kick.
Suggest a Solution to a Problem
Come up with a solution you think might make a difference, and tell how your findings could affect the future.
Put Your Ideas in a Wider Perspective
What is the importance of what of what you have said? What is the larger meaning? Move from the specifics of your topic to the deeper concerns it suggests.
Raise Further Questions or Implications
Which issues now remain? Acknowledge the limitations of what you have covered. Reaffirm what you have established. Examine what it implies.
Above all, don`t just limp out of your paper. Leave your reader with a strong and memorable statement.
Task. Which of the two following paragraphs is preferable? Why?
Task. Underline five logical links in Texts A and B.
Grammatical links include:
- personal pronouns – e.g. it, they, this, that, these, her, him, us;
- relative pronouns – e.g. who, which, that, where;
- other substitutions – e.g. so, such, thus, there, then;
- articles – e.g. Evidence was found … The evidence suggested.
Underline eight grammatical links in Texts C and D
Text C
Plants have only been cultivated for food in the last 30,000 years. Before that, hunter-gather societies dominated the earth. A few such societies, including the Kalahari bushmen of southern Africa, still exist. These communities live primarily in warm inland climates, similar to those prevailing when man first evolved. They rely for food on wild nuts and berries, and meat from wild animals.
Text D
Although meat accounts for between 30% and 80% of primitive diets, the meat eaten is different from that found in today`s butchers` shops. Wild animals have five times less fat than domestic livestock, which are specially bred to satisfy the modern taste for tender meat.
Task. Rewrite the following paragraphs using logical links and grammatical links to connect the idea
Task. Fill the gaps with time connectors given below.
А. as soon as, at last, immediately, meanwhile, then, when, while
The aeroplane had only been in the air for about twenty minutes 1) ... suddenly it began to dive towards the ground. 2) … the passengers began to panic. 3) ... the flight attendants realised what was happening, they did their best to calm everyone down, 4) ... the plane continued to lose altitude. 5) ... , in the cockpit, the pilot was struggling to control the plane. 6) ... it righted itself and he sighed with relief. The flight 7) ... continued without any further problems.
В. after, before, finally, since, then, when
There had never been a storm like it 1) ... - at least not 2) ... the great flood in 1962. Kevin was trying to steer his car through the pouring rain 3) … all of a sudden his car stopped. The engine continued to run for a few seconds, 4) … coughed twice and fell silent. Reluctantly, Kevin got out of his car and watched it sink slowly into the mud at the side of the road. 5) … staring at his useless car for a few min utes, he 6) … stuck his hands into his pockets, bent his head and began the long walk home.
Task. Read each of the following pairs of independent clauses carefully to determine the relationship between them. Then, use one of the following connecting words for each blank. Refer to a chart (handout or book) for guidance.
As a result, Result/Effect
In fact, Emphasis
In other words, Repetition
Instead, Alternative
Nevertheless, Contrast/Surprising result
Task. Read the following text and pay attention to the words in bold.
John Maynard Keynes (1883-1946) was an influential British economist whose theories had a profound effect on economic thought during the 1930s and later. He argued that governments should spend money to stimulate the economy, even if they had to borrow to do so. This ‘deficit spending’ was the basis of the New Deal in the USA, which allowed it to overcome the Great Depression of 1929-1933. Keynes’ theories became unfashionable in the 1970s, but they were revived following the recession of 2007-2009.
Here, the reference words function as follows:
|
Keynes |
governments |
spend money |
USA |
theories |
|
He |
they |
This |
it |
they |
Study these examples of reference words and phrases.
|
Pronouns |
he/she/it/they |
|
Possessive pronouns |
his/her/hers/its/their/theirs |
|
Objective pronouns |
her/him/them |
|
Demonstrative pronouns |
this/that/these/those |
|
Other phrases |
the former/the latter/the first/the second/the last |
Task. Read the following paragraph and complete the table.
Business short life
La Ferrera (2007) has researched the life cycle of new businesses. She found that they have an average life of only 4.7 years, and considers this is due to two main reasons; one economic and one social. The former appears to be a lack of capital, the latter a failure to carry out sufficient market research. La Ferrera considers that together these account for approximately 70 % of business failures.
|
Reference |
Reference word/phrase |
|
La Ferrera |
She |
|
new businesses |
|
|
average life of only 4.7 years |
|
|
one economic |
|
|
one social |
|
|
the former . . ., the latter . . . |
Task. Read the text below and replace the words in bold with reference words.
Velcro
Velcro is a fabric fastener used with clothes and shoes. Velcro was invented by a Swiss engineer called George de Mestral. Mestral’s idea was derived from studying the tiny hooks found on some plant seeds. The tiny hooks cling to animals and help disperse the seeds. Velcro has two sides, one of which is covered in small hooks and the other in loops. When the hooks and loops are pressed together they form a strong bond. Mestral spent eight years perfecting Mestral’s invention, which Mestral called «Velcro» from the French words «velour» and «crochet». The invention was patented in 1955 and today over 60 million metres of Velcro are sold annually.
Task. In the following paragraph, insert suitable reference words in the gaps.
Gillette’s blades
Thin, disposable razor blades were marketed in America by King Gillette at the beginning of the twentieth century. (a) _______________ had realised that as all men had to shave daily, there was a huge market for a product that would make (b) _______________ easier. (c) _______________ was a simple idea, but at first (d) _______________ found it very hard to sell (e) _______________. (f) _______________ was because nobody had marketed a throw-away product
before. However, (g) _______________ use of advertising to stimulate demand rapidly increased sales and (h) _______________ became very popular. Within a few years (i) _______________ was a millionaire.
Task. Use the following information to write a paragraph about nylon, paying careful attention to the use of reference words.
Nylon
Inventor: Wallace Carothers
Company: DuPont Corporation (USA)
Carothers’ position: Director of research centre
Carothers’ background: Chemistry student, specializing in polymers (molecules composed of long chains of atoms)
Properties: Strong but fine synthetic fiber
Patented: 1935
Mass produced: 1939
Applications: Stockings, toothbrushes, parachutes, fishing lines, surgical thread
Task. Rewrite the following text by linking the sentences in each paragraph. Use appropriate linking words or phrases.
The advantages and disadvantages of being famous
People who are famous are usually financially secure. They are often given free designer clothes, cars and jewellery by manufacturers who receive free advertising when these items are worn or used. They receive first-class service wherever they go. They have the power to influence other people and are even role models to many. They have domestic help and employ staff to take care of their business. They are confident and secure as they are successful professionals. They seldom have privacy and often have to go out in public wearing a disguise so that they will not be recognized. Many people take advantage of them and they often lead lonely lives as they never know who their real friends are. Many end up having nervous breakdowns because of stress. Some live in fear of being or having members of their family kidnapped. People expect them to look glamorous and happy at
all times, which is hard for celebrities to do.
Paragraph beginning and ending
Your opening paragraph makes an immediate impression on the reader, so it`s important that it`s clear, well-constructed and appropriate. Before you can write your first paragraph, you need to:
- analyse the question;
- decide how you are going to tackle your answer;
- make a paragraph plan;
Task. Look at the following topic and read three students’ introductions A-C. Then answer Questions 1-3.
Does television have a beneficial or a harmful influence on children?
Task. Use the information below to write a paragraph about Bill Gates.
1955 Bill Gates was born, the second child in a middle-class Seattle family
1968 At age 13, he became interested in writing computer programmes
1975 Gates and his school friend Allen started a programming business called
Microsoft
1980 IBM asked Microsoft to write operating system (called MS-DOS) for its new PC
1985 Microsoft launched Windows operating system
1995 Gates became the richest man in world
2006 He stepped down from working at Microsoft to focus on his charitable foundation
Павлодар, 2023
