2.1 The theory of personality
Personality is first of a contemporary of a certain era and it defines the set of its socio – psychological characteristics. In a particular era personality takes a certain position in the class structure of society. Belonging to a class identity is more basic definition of it, which is directly related to the position of the individual in society. It also follows the economic status and occupation, the political situation and the type of activity as the subject of social and political activity (as member of the organization); legal structure and framework of rights and obligations of the individual as a citizen, moral behavior and consciousness (the structure of the spiritual values). It should be added that the identity is always determined by its characteristic movement and a certain peer–generation, family structure and its position in the structure (such as a father or mother, son and daughter, etc.). A very significant feature of the human as a person is its national identity and racial discrimination in the conditions of capitalist society – and belonging to a certain race (privileged or oppressed), although the race is not a social formation, and is a phenomenon of the historical nature of man.
The theory of personality – a set of hypotheses, or suggestions about the nature and mechanisms of personality development. The theory of personality is trying not only to explain, but also to predict human behavior. Key questions to be answered by the theory of personality are as follows:
2.2 Psychodynamic theory of personality
In the psychological literature there are various opinions regarding the level of integration that characterizes the structure of personality. In his well – known concept of the psychology of the relationship V. Myasischev unity characterizes the personality orientation, level of development, personality structure and dynamics of the neuro – psychological reactance (temperament). From this point of view, the structure of the personality is only one definition of its unity and integrity, that is more characteristic of a private individual, the integration features that are associated with motivation, attitudes and personality tendencies.
According to V. Myasishchev, "questions of structure – a ratio of meaningful trends they are realized in various activities related to the living conditions of the respective historical moment, the main consequence of the relationship, i.e. aspirations, requirements, principles and needs more clearly reveals the structure of relative to defining the role of individual needs. Even more characteristic is the integral relation of the main trends of the individual, which suggests harmony, wholeness, unity or duality, splitting, lack of unity of the person. "
The founder of the psychodynamic theory of personality, also known as "classical psychoanalysis", is an Austrian scientist S. Freud.
S.Freud argued that a person does not have any free will. Human behavior is completely deterministic his sexual and aggressive motives, which he called the id (it). As for the inner world – it is subjective. The man is a prisoner of his own inner world, the true content of the motive hidden behind the "facade" of behavior. Only slips, slips of the tongue, dreams, as well as special methods can give more or less precise information on the identity of the person.
S.Freud distinguishes three main conceptual block or identity instance:
2.3 Analytical theory of personality
The main source of the development of personality Carl Jung believed innate psychological factors. A man inherits from his parents finished primary idea – "archetypes." Some archetypes are universal, such as the idea of God, good and evil, and are common to all peoples. But there are archetypes of cultural and individual – specific. Jung suggested that archetypes are reflected in dreams, fantasies, and are often found in the form of symbols used in art, literature, architecture and religion. The meaning of each person's life – filled with innate archetypes with specific content.
According to Jung, the personality is formed throughout life. The personality structure is dominated by the unconscious, which is the main part of "collective unconscious" – a set of innate archetypes. Freedom of the will of the individual is limited. Human behavior is actually subordinate to his innate archetypes and the collective unconscious. The inner world of the person, under this theory, is entirely subjective. Expand your world capable personality only through their dreams and the relationship to the symbols of culture and art. The true content of personality is hidden from the casual observer.
The main elements are the individual psychological characteristics of the individual realized the archetypes of man. These properties are also often called traits. For example, the properties of the archetype of "persona" (mask) – it is all of our psychological characteristics, the role that we flaunt; properties archetype "shadow" – it is our true psychological feelings that we hide from people; properties archetype "animus" (spirit) – to be courageous, firm, bold; protect, guard, hunting and so on. etc.; properties archetype "anima" (soul) – tenderness, gentleness, caring.
In the analytical model, there are three basic conceptual unit, or the scope of the person:
The integrity of the person is achieved through the action of the archetype of "self." The main objective of this archetype – "individualization" of man, or a way out of the collective unconscious. This is achieved thanks to the fact that the "self" organizes, coordinates, integrates all of the human psyche structure together and create a unique, unique life of each individual. In the self, there are two ways, two installations of this integration:
In every man there is both extrovert and introvert. However, the degree of severity can be made different.
In addition, K. Jung distinguished four subtypes of information processing: mental, sensual, conscious and intuitive, the dominance of one of which gives originality extrovert or introvertiveness installing person. Thus, eight subtypes of the person can be identified in the typology of Carl Jung.
As an example, the characteristics of two personality types:
According to the analytical theory of personality – a collection of birth and implemented archetypes and personality structure is defined as the ratio of the individual uniqueness of the individual properties of the archetypes of the unconscious individual blocks and conscious, and extraverted or introverted personality settings.
2.4 Humanistic theory of personality
Such phenomena, which can be called a deformation of the individual, there are usually only in connection with the termination of the professional work in a particular area of social life, production and culture. In other words, such a deformation – a consequence of a radical change in lifestyle and activities, status and role of man in society, chief among which is the production, the creation of material and spiritual values. Sudden blockage of potential disability and human certainty with the termination of long–term work can not but cause deep transformations in the structure of man as the subject of activity, and therefore personality.
The main source of development of the individual representatives of humanistic psychology is considered innate tendency to self – actualization. Personal development has a deployment of these innate tendencies. According to C. Rogers, there are two tendencies inherent in the human psyche. The first, which he called "self – actualizing tendency", contains initially minimized future properties of the human person. The second – "organismic tracking process" – is a control mechanism for the development of the individual. On the basis of these trends, a person in the development process there is a particular personality structure. "I", which includes "ideal self" and the "real self." These substructures "I" structure are complex relationships – from harmony (congruence) to complete disharmony.
The purpose of life, according to C. Rogers, – realize their full inherent potential to be a "fully functioning person", i.e. a man who uses all his abilities and talents, realize its potential and moves to the full knowledge of themselves, their experiences, following his true nature.
Maslow identified two types of needs that underlie the development of the personality, "the deficit", which terminated after meeting them, and the "growth" which, on the contrary, only worse after their implementation. Altogether, according to A. Maslow, there are five levels of motivation:
In the humanistic model of personality basic conceptual "units" are:
Although the "real self" and "ideal self" (a high self – esteem). At low values of the congruence (low self – esteem), there is a high level of anxiety, symptoms of depression.
Personal integrity is characterized by:
Thus, within the humanistic approach, personality – is the inner world of the human "I" as a result of self–actualization, and the structure of personality – is the ratio of the individual "I am real" and "ideal self", as well as the individual level of development needs for self – actualization.
2.5 Cognitive theory of personality
Cognitive theory of personality close to the humanist, but it contains a number of significant differences. The founder of this approach is the American psychologist John Kelly (1905–1967). According to him, the only thing people want to know in life – this is what happened to him and that it will happen in the future.
The main source of personal development, according to J. Kelly, is the environment, social environment. Cognitive theory of personality emphasizes the impact of intellectual processes on human behavior. In this theory, every person is compared with scientists to test hypotheses about the nature of things and to make forecasts of future events.
The main conceptual element is the personal "construct". Every person has its own system of personal constructs, which is divided into two levels (unit):
The first block "nuclear" constructs – is about 50 basic constructs that are on the top of the construct of the system, i.e., in constant focus of operative consciousness. These constructs people use most frequently when interacting with other people.
The second set of peripheral constructs – all the other constructs. The number of these constructs is purely individual and can range from hundreds to several thousands.
Holistic personality traits appear as a result of co – operation of both units, all constructs. There are two types of the whole person: cognitive complex personality (personality, which has a large number of constructs) and cognitively simple identity (a person with a small set of constructs).
Cognitive complex personality, compared with cognitive simple, has the following characteristics:
2.6 The behavioral theory of personality
The psychological process personality changes caused by functional disorganization of brain activity. As a consequence and manifestation of disease of the brain, they themselves depend on the individual. The heavier consisting painful and painful process, the greater the change a person's personality.
Do not depend on the individual in the external environment, i.e., endogenous disease is considered amphithymia or manic – depressive psychosis, it has long been attributable to functional psychosis. Contact Cyclophrenia with a particular type of body, with changes in the exchange, and, hence, with the changed dynamics of diencephalic brain activity is unquestionable.
Behavioral theory of personality has another name – "learning" as the main thesis of this theory states that: our personality is a product of learning.
There are two directions in the behavioral theory of personality – and social reflex. The reflex area is represented by the works of famous American behaviorist John Watson and B. Skinner. The founders of social trends are American researchers A. Bandura and J. Rotter.
The main source of personal development, according to both directions, is an environment in the broadest sense of the word. The person there is nothing on the genetic and psychological inheritance. Personality is a product of learning, and its properties – a generalized behavioral reflexes of social skills.
There are three basic conceptual identity block in the behavioral model. Main unit – self – efficacy, which is a kind of cognitive construct, "I – I can not." A. Bandura defines this structure as a faith, a belief or expectation of future reinforcements. This unit determines the success of the commission of certain conduct, or the success of learning new social skills. If a person makes a decision: "I can" – he begins to perform a specific action, but if a man verdict: "I can not", – he refuses to perform this action or its assimilation. For example, if you decide that you can not learn Chinese, then no power will force you to do it. And if you decide that you can do it, then sooner or later you will learn it.
According to A. Bandura, there are four main conditions that define the formation of a person of confidence that he can and can not do:
2.7 The activity theory of personality
The principal difference between activity theory of behavior is that learning is not a means of reflex acts, and a special mechanism of internalization, through which is the assimilation of socio – historical experience. The main characteristics of the activities is the objectivity and subjectivity. Specificity of objectivity is that the objects of the outside world do not affect the subject directly, but only by being converted in the process of the activity itself.
The activity approach is the most popular model is a four – person, which is as fundamental building blocks includes orientation, ability, character and self – control.
Directionality – a system of stable preferences and motives (interests, ideals, attitudes) of the person defining the main trends of individual behavior. A man with a strong orientation has the work ethic, dedication.
Abilities – individual psychological characteristics that ensure the success of the activities. There are general and special (music, mathematics and so on.) capacity. Abilities are interconnected with each other. One is the ability of lead, while others play a supporting role. People are not only on the level of general abilities, but also by a combination of special abilities. For example, a good musician can be a bad mathematician, and vice versa.
Character – a set of moral – moral and strong – willed person properties. By moral properties include sensitivity or callousness in relation to the people responsible in relation to public duties, modesty. Moral – moral qualities reflect the views of the individual on basic normative acts human, embodied in the habits, customs and traditions. Volitional qualities include determination, perseverance, courage and self – control, which provide a certain style of behavior and a way to solve practical problems. Based on the severity of the moral and volitional characteristics of human nature are the following species: the moral and strong – willed, immoral – volitional, moral – abulia (abulia – lack of will), immoral – abulia.
A person with a moral – strong – willed character, socially active, continuously comply with social norms and to comply with their volitional effort applies. About a man is said to be determined, persevering, courageous, honest. The man with the moral – strong – willed character does not recognize social norms, and all its strong – willed effort aims at satisfying its own purposes. People with moral – abulia character recognize the usefulness and importance of social norms, however, being weak–willed, often unwillingly, by force of circumstances commit antisocial acts. People with moral – abulia character type indifferent to social norms and no effort to fulfill them.
Self – control – a set of self–regulation properties, associated with the realization of the personality itself. This unit is built over all the other blocks and performs control over them: strengthening or weakening of activity, correction actions and deeds, anticipation and planning activities, etc.
All the individual units are interconnected and form a systemic, holistic properties. Among them, the main place belongs to existential properties personality. These properties are associated with a holistic view of the person of itself (self – relation), his "I", the meaning of life, about responsibility, about the purpose in this world. Holistic properties make the person a reasonable and purposeful. A person with severe existential properties is spiritually rich, solid and wise.
Thus, within the framework of the activity approach the person – it is a conscious entity, which occupies a certain position in society and carrying out socially useful social role. The structure of personality – it is difficult organized hierarchy of individual properties, blocks (orientation, abilities, character, self – control) and system existential holistic personality traits.
2.8 Dispositional theory of personality
Interesting empirical data relating to investigations "self – actualization" A. Maslow. author selected among people familiar to him those who have been called "optimal functioning individuals", and highlighted their common psychological properties. The main ones are the following:
The main source of personal development, according to this approach is a factor gene – environment interactions, with some directions emphasize mainly influence from genetics, while others – from the environment.
Representatives of the "soft" areas, in particular G. Olloport, there are three kinds of features:
Followers of G. Olloport using various mathematical techniques, in particular factor analysis, attempted to identify the number of common traits in humans. The issue of compliance features selected on the basis of clinical data and characteristics obtained at the rate of using factor analysis, is the subject of specific research.
Representatives of the formal – dynamic areas as an essential element of personality is divided into four basic formal – dynamic properties of the individual:
The integrity of the person's behavior is characterized by proprium. A man with developed proprium called mature person. A mature person has the following properties:
Thus, within the framework of dispositional personality approach – a complex system of formal – dynamic characteristics (temperament) traits and socio – caused proprium properties. The structure of the individual – is an organized hierarchy of individual biologically deterministic properties belonging to certain relations and forming certain types of temperaments and traits, as well as a set of content properties, constitute the human proprium.
Unevennes and heterochrony, instability sensitivity, cumulative, divergence – convergence are related to the laws of mental development
Unevenness and heterochrony. Unevenness – is the uneven development of the various mental functions, properties and structures. This process is characterized by the rise, stable flow and recession, is oscillatory. When people talk about the unevenness of mental development, have in mind the pace, direction, duration of the current changes. It has been observed that the greatest frequency of oscillation in a development – a function to the period of the highest achievements of this function. E. Rybalko said that the higher the level of productivity (achievements) in the development, the more oscillatory nature of its age dynamics.
Heterochrony mean difference in time of development of individual organs and functions. If the cause is the uneven development of the non–linear nature of the system, heterochrony connected with the peculiarities of its structure and the heterogeneity of its elements.
Domestic physiologist P. Anokhin (1898–1974) believed that heterochrony is uneven deployment of hereditary information. As an example, he cited the following fact: first formed older analyzers, and then the younger.
German educator and psychologist A. Maiman (1862–1915) showed the following: the more necessary this or that function, the faster it develops. For example, the child quickly learns to navigate in space than in time.
Instability development. This pattern is closely related to the uneven and heterochrony, evident in the development of the crisis. This is due to the fact that development always goes through an unstable period, including crises. Stability is possible under two conditions: when finelyamplitude frequent fluctuations; a mismatch in the time of development of different mental processes, functions and properties. It follows that the resistance due to possible instability.
The sensitive development. As mentioned above, the sensitive period of development called the period when the most reasonable start and maintain training and education of children. The domestic psychologist B. Ananiev understood by the sensitive time complex characteristics correlated functions, sensitized to a specific time of training.
These periods are limited in time, and if the sensitive period in the development of a certain quality has been neglected, then the process of its development will be a long one.
Cumulatively. This pattern of development is that the results of the previous age period are included in the follow–up, but with certain modifications. For example, in the development of thinking first develops visually – effective, then clearly – shaped and finally verbal and logical thinking. This process shows the qualitative transformation of mental development.
Divergent – convergence. These are two contradictory but interrelated tendencies. Divergent is to increase diversity in the process of mental development, convergence – in enhancing selectivity.
Control questions